To Infer a Causal Relationship, Which of the Following Types

question 54

Multiple Choice

To infer a causal relationship, which of the following types of evidence does a researcher need?

• A)Evidence of a strong association between an action and an outcome.
• B)Evidence that the action preceded the outcome.
• C)Evidence of a high level of internal validity.
• D)Evidence that there are no strongly competing explanations for the relationship between an action and an outcome.
• E)All of these

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Definitions:

Consumer Surplus

The disparity in the consumers' desired payment amount for a good or service and the actual expense they bear.

Natural Monopoly

A market condition where a single firm can supply a product or service at a lower cost than any potential competitor, often due to economies of scale.

Large Fixed Costs

Expenses that do not change in total regardless of changes in the volume of goods or services produced.

ATC

Average Total Cost, which is calculated by dividing the total cost of production by the quantity of output produced.