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Let Use Stokes' Theorem to find where C is a circle in the xy-plane of radius , centered at oriented counter-clockwise when viewed from above.
Square Root
The square root of a number is a value that, when multiplied by itself, gives the original number.
P < 0.05
A statistical threshold indicating that the observed results are significant with a probability of less than 5% being due to chance.
Obtained Value
The actual value measured or computed from a data set or experiment, often compared against a theoretic or critical value in hypothesis testing.
Population Standard Deviation
The population standard deviation is a measure of the dispersion or spread of a set of values within a population, quantifying how much the values differ from the population mean.
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