Which Threat to Internal Validity Occurs in Any Study with Nonequivalent

question 49

Multiple Choice

Which threat to internal validity occurs in any study with nonequivalent groups and prevents researchers from making conclusive claims about causality?

• A) Order effects
• B) Instrumentation effects
• C) Regression toward the mean
• D) Individual differences

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Definitions:

Nash Equilibrium

Nash Equilibrium is a concept within game theory where no participant can gain by unilaterally changing their strategy if the strategies of the others remain unchanged.

Simultaneous Game

A game in game theory where all players make decisions or choose strategies at the same time without knowledge of the others' choices.

Utility

A measure of satisfaction, usefulness, or pleasure derived from consuming goods and services.

Efficient Outcome

A situation in economics in which resources are allocated in the most effective manner, maximizing the potential benefit to an economy or market without wasting resources.