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Describe the third-variable problem and the directionality problem in correlational research. Explain how these problems make it impossible to obtain an unambiguous cause-and-effect conclusion from a correlational study.
Free Rider Effect
A situation where some individuals benefit from resources or services without contributing to the cost.
Proportional Share
An allocation method where resources, rewards, or responsibilities are distributed among parties based on a predefined ratio or proportion.
Groupthink
A psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people when the desire for harmony or conformity results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome.
Illusion of Invulnerability
A cognitive bias that leads individuals or groups to underestimate risks, believing themselves immune to negative outcomes.
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