[Solved] Irrelevant costs are costs that are the same for more than one alternative. Preconventional: The initial stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development, where behavior is driven by the desire to avoid punishment and gain rewards. Rights And Dignity: Rights And Dignity refer to the basic human rights and respect every individual deserves regardless of their status, race, gender, or beliefs. Pornographic Magazines: Printed publications that contain content of an explicitly sexual nature intended to stimulate erotic excitement. Formal Operational Stage: The stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget, occurring from approximately age 12 onwards, where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, logically, and systematically.