For each of the following factors,determine if the given change or level of that factor would lead an analyst to believe that managers of a firm are more or less likely to engage in earnings manipulation:
Definitions:
Definite Outcomes
Results or effects that are specific, clear, and unambiguous, often anticipated or expected in various contexts.
Temporal Discounting
A preference for immediate gratification over rewards that come later.
Risk Aversion
A behavioral tendency to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains, indicating a preference for certainty and safety.
Certainty Effect
The tendency for people to give greater weight to outcomes that are certain, compared to outcomes that are probable, often observed in decision-making under uncertainty.
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