Philippa Foot: Morality as a System of Hypothetical Imperatives

question 1

Essay

Philippa Foot: Morality as a System of Hypothetical Imperatives
The distinction between categorical and hypothetical imperatives plays a key role in Kant's moral philosophy. Kant conceived of imperatives as statements about what one ought to do. Whereas hypothetical imperatives tell us we ought to act a certain way if we are to achieve a certain end that we desire, categorical imperatives state that we ought to do something regardless of whatever ends we happen to have. Kant held that moral requirements are categorical imperatives. On the face of it, common opinion seems to agree, for you cannot refute the claim that you morally ought to do something simply by pointing out that doing so would not satisfy your desires.
Foot argues that Kant was mistaken about this, and that moral requirements are in fact hypothetical imperatives. She begins by pointing out that as a matter of language, the imperatives of etiquette are also nonhypothetical - such norms do not fail to apply to people simply because they do not care about etiquette. Although the norms of etiquette apply to us regardless of our desires and interests, however, they cannot give us reasons to act independently of our desires and interests. Foot claims that we should think of moral requirements in the same way. In her view, those who reject morality are not necessarily behaving irrationally, for to act irrationally is to act in a way that defeats one's own purposes, and acting immorally need not involve any such self-defeat.
Foot realizes that some people will claim that her thesis is destructive of morality, and will argue that truly moral actions must be done "because they are right." Foot denies this view of morality, arguing that one can act morally simply out of a desire to helps one's fellow humans, or from a desire to be an honest and just person. Instead of seeing morality as demanding things of us independently of our aims, Foot recommends that we see ourselves as "volunteers banded together to fight for liberty and justice and against inhumanity and oppression."
-In what sense are the norms of etiquette nonhypothetical? Why does Foot deny that the norms of etiquette are categorical imperatives? Are moral norms relevantly different than the norms of etiquette?

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Definitions:

Maslow's Hierarchy

A psychological theory proposed by Abraham Maslow that categorizes human needs into a five-tier model of hierarchical levels, from basic needs to self-actualization.

Maslow's Hierarchy

A psychological theory proposed by Abraham Maslow that outlines a five-tier model of human needs, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.

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The respect and admiration that an individual receives from others, often linked to self-confidence and self-value.

Motivational Factors

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